How the Old Testament Describes the Hebrew Language
The Old Testament refers to its language as Hebrew in some places and as the language of Canaan or the language of Judah in others. The Hebrew Bible, known as the Tanakh, contains writings that use a script and grammar distinct from later Jewish texts. While most of the Old Testament is written in Hebrew, a few sections appear in Aramaic, which became more common in later Jewish history.
Ancient Hebrew is a Semitic language, sharing roots with Aramaic, Akkadian, and Arabic. The biblical text uses consonantal writing, meaning that vowels were not originally written. This script evolved into Classical Hebrew, which is the form found in the Masoretic Text, the authoritative version of the Hebrew Bible. The language described in the Old Testament reflects both the linguistic traditions of Israel and the broader linguistic environment of the ancient Near East.
The Language of Canaan
The book of Isaiah 19:18 mentions the phrase “language of Canaan,” referring to the spoken language of the region where the Israelites settled. Ancient Canaanite languages included Phoenician, Moabite, and Hebrew, which were closely related. Among these, Hebrew became the dominant language of the Israelite tribes.
Archaeological discoveries, such as the Gezer Calendar, confirm that Hebrew was spoken and written in ancient Israel. This inscription, dating back to the 10th century BCE, records agricultural cycles using an early form of Hebrew. The script used in these inscriptions resembles Phoenician writing, which influenced early Hebrew script.
The Language of Judah
The Bible also refers to Hebrew as the “language of Judah” in 2 Kings 18:26-28 and Nehemiah 13:24. This description emphasizes the use of Hebrew among the people of the southern kingdom, known as Judah. During the time of the Divided Monarchy, the northern kingdom of Israel fell under Assyrian influence, while Judah retained Hebrew as its dominant language.
By the time of King Hezekiah, officials from Assyria spoke to the Judean people in Aramaic, assuming they would not understand it. However, Hezekiah’s officials requested that the Assyrians avoid speaking in Hebrew, since it was the language of the common people. This exchange shows that Hebrew remained the spoken language of the population in Jerusalem and surrounding areas.
An Example of Hebrew from Genesis 1:1
The first verse of the Old Testament, Genesis 1:1, is written in Biblical Hebrew and provides a clear example of its structure:
בְּרֵאשִׁית בָּרָא אֱלֹהִים אֵת הַשָּׁמַיִם וְאֵת הָאָרֶץ
Transliteration: Bereshit bara Elohim et hashamayim ve’et ha’aretz.
Translation: “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.”
This verse demonstrates Hebrew word order, which typically places the verb before the subject. The word “Bereshit” means “in the beginning,” while “bara” means “created.” The structure of this sentence follows the standard form of biblical Hebrew, with short, direct phrases and a reliance on root-based word formations.
The Origin of Hebrew
Hebrew belongs to the Northwest Semitic language family, which also includes Phoenician and Aramaic. The earliest known Hebrew inscriptions date back to around 1200 BCE, during the period when the Israelites were settling in Canaan. Over time, Hebrew developed into a distinct written language, separate from its Canaanite relatives.
Ancient inscriptions, such as the Siloam Inscription from Hezekiah’s tunnel in Jerusalem, confirm that Hebrew was used in official records. This text, dating to around 700 BCE, provides one of the earliest examples of continuous Hebrew writing. Other inscriptions, including the Lachish Letters, show that Hebrew remained a written language even during the Babylonian exile.
By the time of the Second Temple period, Hebrew continued as a literary and religious language, though Aramaic gained prominence in everyday speech. The Dead Sea Scrolls, which contain biblical and non-biblical texts, show that Hebrew was still in use in the first century BCE. This period saw the transition from Classical Biblical Hebrew to Mishnaic Hebrew, which had a slightly different grammar and vocabulary.
Hebrew in the New Testament
Although the New Testament is written in Greek, there are indications that Hebrew was still spoken and understood in Judea. The Gospels mention Jesus speaking to Jewish audiences, many of whom were familiar with Hebrew prayers and scriptures.
Some scholars argue that portions of the New Testament preserve Hebrew expressions or influences. For example, Matthew 5:18 uses the phrase “not one jot or tittle shall pass from the Law”, referring to the smallest letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This suggests that Hebrew writing was still recognized by Jewish communities, even as Greek became the dominant language in the eastern Roman world.
Aramaic in the Old Testament
While most of the Old Testament is in Hebrew, some portions are written in Aramaic. This language became widespread after the Babylonian exile, when the Persian Empire used it for administration. The books of Daniel and Ezra contain passages in Aramaic, reflecting the influence of Babylonian and Persian rule.
Aramaic Words and Phrases in the New Testament
The New Testament contains several Aramaic phrases, showing that the language remained in use alongside Hebrew and Greek. Some of these include:
- Talitha koum (Mark 5:41) – “Little girl, arise.”
- Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? (Matthew 27:46) – “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”
- Abba (Mark 14:36) – “Father.”
These words show that Aramaic remained a spoken language among Jewish communities in the first century CE. Many people understood both Hebrew and Aramaic, with Hebrew used in religious texts and Aramaic used in everyday speech.